On March 10, 1876, the first telephone call was made. The inventor, Alexander Graham Bell, employed a prototype transmitter that used the vibrations caused by sound waves to electronically send a signal into the receiver in the next room. “Watson,” Bell said, “Come here – I want to see you.” One hundred and fifty years later, we’re vibrating millions of times faster, with our text messages and e-mails, internet chats and wireless headsets. We can talk to astronauts on the space station and researchers in submarines. We can have conversations with people all over the world, from the top of the Himalayas to the middle of the African plains. It seems that every month, there’s a new invention and a new way to communicate.

The word invention comes from the Latin verb invenire, meaning to discover or find. It’s not just a matter of suddenly coming across a new thing, however – there’s an element of hard work and creativity involved in any new invention. In English, we use the word to mean both the physical result of this process, and the process itself.

Example 1 (process): The invention of the telegraph made instantaneous transatlantic communication possible.

Example 2 (result): The telegraph was one of the most important inventions of the 19th century.

The pace of invention often means that things that were extremely useful and important at one time are replaced with newer methods or models. While there are still places around the world that use telegrams, the telephone, mail system, or computer e-mail system is used much more frequently. Most of the large international telegraph services (Telex) sent their last messages out between 1999 and 2009.

How did you do on yesterday’s quiz? (If you haven’t had a chance to take it, give it a try here before looking at the answers below.) Did you find it easier to pick the correct word by using the context of the sentence to figure out which one fit the best? Were there words that you still mixed up? Some of the word pairs have very similar spelling – did those word pairs cause any trouble? Other word pairs sound the same, or nearly the same, when spoken out loud – did you find yourself getting confused because of that? Think about any problems you might have had when you took this quiz, then check your answers. In future posts, we’ll have tips on how you can get the most out of your vocabulary study time.

When the choirs from the five local churches perform all together, they sound very impressive.

Passing the written test of road safety is the penultimate step towards getting a driver’s license.

When you are overwhelmed by a large project, try breaking it down into discrete parts and working on them one at a time.

Howard takes every opportunity he can to flaunt his knowledge of Japanese when he goes out to the sushi bars with us.

Knowing that the crowd would be angry and inflammable, the police department decided to set patrols near the site of the demonstration.

Her job performance at our company was unexceptionable and I wouldn’t hesitate to recommend her for that position.

When you spend next week at that health spa, remember that they proscribe coffee and tea, so be prepared for a drop in your energy at first.

When we heard that the total solar eclipse was imminent we all rushed outside to watch.

The international scientific conference started with a speech by the eminent physicist Stephen Hawking.

Altogether, that was the best conference I have ever attended.

The store manager was arrested for the illicit surveillance videos he made of his employees in the changing rooms.

The United Nations Security Council is instrumental in keeping peace around the world.

If you arrive late for the wedding, please be discreet when you enter the church, so that you don’t interrupt the ceremony.

I’m not averse to the use of salt in cooking, but she adds too much to her dishes for my taste.

Because the oxygen in the respirators is highly flammable there is no smoking allowed in the asthma ward.

A homeopathic physician may prescribe a course of botanical extracts to cure your allergies.

The doctors tried everything they could to elicit a response from the comatose patient.

Ellen got a compliment from the minister on the lovely flower arrangement she made for the altar.

If you’re angry with her, I’d counsel you to wait a few days to think about your response to her remark.

Women in the 19th century were considered very daring to flout convention and wear trousers.

This symphony season was unexceptional and I don’t think I’m going to renew my subscription.

Some people think that free-fall skydiving is the ultimate in thrilling adventure.

Her positive attitude helps her deal with the most adverse situations.

Robert Burns stated that the perfect complement to a haggis is a dram of whiskey.

If you’ve been reading The Vocabulary Builder’s Blog here at Ultimate Vocabulary this week, you’ll know that we’ve been looking at twelve pairs of words that are frequently misused, because the words are easily confused with each other. If you haven’t had a chance to read Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, and Part 4, you might want to review the word pairs now, because today we’re giving you a quiz. Or just jump right in and test your word knowledge!

Ready? Using each of the following words once, fill in the blanks in the sentences below.

When the choirs from the five local churches perform _____________, they sound very impressive.

Passing the written test of road safety is the _____________ step towards getting a driver’s license.

When you are overwhelmed by a large project, try breaking it down into _____________ parts and working on them one at a time.

Howard takes every opportunity he can to _____________ his knowledge of Japanese when he goes out to the sushi bars with us.

Knowing that the crowd would be angry and _____________, the police department decided to set patrols near the site of the demonstration.

Her job performance at our company was _____________ and I wouldn’t hesitate to recommend her for that position.

When you spend next week at that health spa, remember that they _____________ coffee and tea, so be prepared for a drop in your energy at first.

When we heard that the total solar eclipse was _____________ we all rushed outside to watch.

The international scientific conference started with a speech by the _____________ physicist Stephen Hawking.

_____________, that was the best conference I have ever attended.

The store manager was arrested for the _____________ surveillance videos he made of his employees in the changing rooms.

The United Nations Security _____________ is instrumental in keeping peace around the world.

If you arrive late for the wedding, please be _____________ when you enter the church, so that you don’t interrupt the ceremony.

I’m not _____________ to the use of salt in cooking, but she adds too much to her dishes for my taste.

Because the oxygen in the respirators is highly _____________ there is no smoking allowed in the asthma ward.

A homeopathic physician may _____________ a course of botanical extracts to cure your allergies.

The doctors tried everything they could to _____________ a response from the comatose patient.

Ellen got a _____________ from the minister on the lovely flower arrangement she made for the altar.

If you’re angry with her, I’d _____________ you to wait a few days to think about your response to her remark.

Women in the 19th century were considered very daring to _____________ convention and wear trousers.

This symphony season was _____________ and I don’t think I’m going to renew my subscription.

Some people think that free-fall skydiving is the _____________ in thrilling adventure.

Her positive attitude helps her deal with the most _____________ situations.

Robert Burns stated that the perfect _____________ to a haggis is a dram of whiskey.

Check back tomorrow for the answers!

Some words are frequently confused and misused even by native English speakers, because the definitions of the words have been blended and exchanged over the years, so most people don’t remember the original, correct meanings. If you learn these three word pairs and use them correctly, your English skills will be unexceptionable.

All Together v. Altogether

All together now, repeat after me: “Altogether is one word.” While both of these words have the underlying sense of “everything,” they’re used and spelled in different ways. All together means in a group, or as a group.

When we’re all together, we have a lot of fun.
The sheep were huddled all together in the far corner of the field.

The word altogether, on the other hand, has an altogether different use. This word is an adjective meaning completely or totally, or taking all things into consideration.

Once we were over the mountain range, we lost cell phone service altogether.
It rained for two days, and the beds weren’t very comfortable, but altogether we had a very nice vacation at the beach.

Penultimate v. Ultimate

Here at Ultimate Vocabulary we’re happy to acknowledge that one definition of ultimate is “the best.” We also like the other ways this word is used – to mean “the last in a series” (you won’t need another vocabulary learning program!) or to indicate something that is the highest (the Ultimate Vocabulary system is the tops!). Here are a few more examples of the word:

The new cruise line promises to provide the ultimate in luxury sailing experiences.
The ultimate goal of the program is to train you to have confidence in your speaking abilities.

Penultimate means the next to the last thing. The word comes from the Latin paene (almost) and ultima (final).

Auckland is the penultimate stop on our around-the-world cruise.
The Scottish town Kirkcudbright is pronounced “kirr-koo-bree,” with the accent on the penultimate syllable.

Flammable v. Inflammable

Both of these words mean catching fire easily, or capable of burning or being burned. However, many people think that the word inflammable refers to something that can’t be burned. We’re used to words like indiscreet (not discreet) and indirect (not direct) where the prefix in- means “not” – but in this case, in-flammable still means flammable. If you want to talk about something that can’t catch fire, use the word nonflammable. Inflammable is also often used to describe emotional states, where it means fiery, or easily aroused.

That can of kerosene is flammable and should be moved away from the fire.
His inflammable temper makes him completely unsuited to work in customer service.

Keep your temper and don’t lose patience with these easily-confused words! We’ll discuss three more word pairs tomorrow.

This week, we’re looking at words that are frequently confused and misused. Being able to use the correct word in any situation is an important skill, and many of these words appear on tests such as the GRE and SAT. Take the time to study and thoroughly learn these words – you’ll improve your English skills immensely.

Eminent v. Imminent

Because these words are so close in pronunciation, they’re often more confusing in a spoken sentence than a written one. The word imminent (IH-mih-nent) is used to describe something that is probably (though not definitely) just about to happen.

The town was evacuated when scientists stated that the volcano’s eruption was imminent.
If he doesn’t slow down, he’s in imminent danger of crashing into the wall.

Eminent (EH-mih-nent) means distinguished, important, and of great worth.

His university mentor is an eminent scholar of ancient Greek texts.
The town council had a ceremony to honor the eminent members of the community who had contributed to the charity.

Council v. Counsel

Council is a noun used to indicate a group of people who are gathered or elected to be legislators, advisors, or administrators, and who make and follow rules and directives.

Of the six people on the council, two are teachers and the other four are career politicians.
After the coup, the generals replaced all of the local councils with military advisors.

In its advisory capacity, a council might counsel a specific course of action. Counsel means advice or recommendations, or the giving of such advice or guidance.

I depend on the counsel of my grandparents to guide me through difficult choices.
A good psychiatrist will counsel you in such a way that you find your own solutions to your problems.

Flaunt v. Flout

To flout means to scorn, or show contempt for. This verb is usually used when referring to someone’s deliberate disregard for the laws (legal or otherwise) of society.

Though her family is very traditional, Emma decided to flout convention and wear a black dress at her wedding.
Rich people often think their wealth allows them to flout the rules and do whatever they want.

Another thing many rich people are known for is a tendency to flaunt their wealth. To flaunt means to show off, to display to excess.

James always flaunts his newest sports car at each year’s company picnic, though it doesn’t make him any friends.
Deidre flaunted her engagement ring at every opportunity, waving her hands constantly as she spoke.

Practice these word pairs until you’re certain you won’t confuse them in the future. It’s better to flaunt your knowledge of English than flout the rules of grammar.

In English, many words have similar spelling and pronunciation, but different meanings. Knowing which word to use will mark you as an expert English speaker, and will give your written communication a professional polish that will be quickly recognized by your current and future employers. The Ultimate Vocabulary program helps you target many of these potentially troublesome words. In this series of posts, we’ll look at twelve pairs of words that are frequently misused.

Adverse v. Averse

While both of these are adjectives that have a negative connotation, they differ in more than their spelling. Adverse is used to describe something that creates an opposing, contrary, or negative influence on a situation, and on your interests related to that situation.

The decline of the dollar has had an adverse impact on United States exports.
Though the heavy fog created adverse conditions for the race, the yachts set sail at dawn.

Averse is the word used to describe your feeling of distaste or disinclination about that situation. A synonym is “unwilling.”

Due to the decline in the dollar, banks are averse to lending money to new export companies.
The captain was averse to sailing in the fog, and waited until it burned off before entering the race.

Complement v. Compliment

After putting in so much work on improving your vocabulary, we’re sure that you will receive many compliments on your language skills. A compliment is an expression of admiration or praise. To compliment someone is to say something nice to and/or about them.

Helen received many compliments from her coworkers on her new hairstyle.
That was a delicious meal – my compliments to the chef!

While receiving a compliment may fill you with a good feeling, it’s probably not something that makes your life complete. Complement means something that completes or makes whole. This word is also used as an expression indicating a state of completeness.

The slight bitterness of the coffee is the perfect complement to the sweetness of the cake.
Before our trek, the guide made sure we had our full complement of emergency supplies.

Unexceptionable v. Unexceptional

These two words, though they look very similar, have nearly opposite meanings. Unexceptional means average, standard, usual – nothing special, in other words. It’s not necessarily a negative word, but it’s not usually used as a compliment, either.

Steven’s performance was unexceptional; the judges did not advance him to the next round.
I find the food at that restaurant unexceptional, and not worth the prices they charge.

Unexceptionable, on the other hand, is a very complimentary word indeed. This adjective is used to describe something that is beyond criticism or reproach, that cannot be complained about because it has no flaws.

The senator was elected by a wide margin due to his unexceptionable ethics and conduct.
In Victorian times, a woman was required to have unexceptionable manners, in public and in private.

In the next post, we’ll look at three more word pairs: eminent/imminent, flaunt/flout, and council/counsel.

All the world ’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts. (As You Like It)

William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was a prolific author and playwright who revolutionized English theatre and whose works are known and quoted around the world. Many common English phrases come from his plays. You’ve probably heard at least one of these:

“as luck would have it” (Merry Wives of Windsor)
“give the devil his due” (King Henry IV Part I)
“it’s all Greek to me” (Julius Caesar)
“that’s neither here nor there” (Othello)
“wear my heart upon my sleeve” (Othello)

Many of the words in common use in English today were first noted in Shakespeare’s works. It’s not certain whether he invented the words or not, but he’s usually given the credit for coining the words, if no other citations are found. Here are some of the words attributed to Shakespeare’s genius:

sanctimonious – acting as if you have better morals than other people even though you do not

Thou concludest like the sanctimonious pirate, that went to sea with the ten commandments, but scraped one out of the table. (Measure for Measure)

Lucio describes a pirate who carries a copy of the Bible with him so that all can see how devout he is, but in secret he crossed out the commandment (“thou shalt not steal”) that he constantly breaks.

dauntless – not afraid or intimidated

‘Tis much he dares; and, to that dauntless temper of his mind, he hath a wisdom that doth guide his valor to act in safety. (Macbeth)

Macbeth says that while Banquo is not afraid of anything, he’s wise enough to not take foolish chances.

inauspicious – unlucky, unfavorable, ill-omened

O, here will I set up my everlasting rest, and shake the yoke of inauspicious stars from this world-wearied flesh. (Romeo and Juliet)

Romeo is about to kill himself, and is happy to leave a life in which he has been unlucky in love and fortune.

Read, Listen, and Learn

Shakespeare’s writing is rich in vocabulary and imagery, and reading his plays will help you develop your own creative writing and speaking style. You might come across archaic words (ones that are no longer commonly used), but you’ll find more words that are useful than not. Remember, you’ll learn more quickly if you use more than one learning method, so after you read a play, look for a local theatre production of it, or rent one of the many videos available – the BBC did a complete series of the plays, and in the last few years there have been quite a few movies that use the original scripts. Try your hand at acting, and get a group of friends together to read the play aloud. And have fun with your new …

“Words, words, words.” (Hamlet)

In the previous post, we talked about the process of officially adding new words to the venerable Oxford English Dictionary, a process that can take years, even though many new words enter the common spoken language every day as a natural process of language change, or to keep up with changes in society, or perhaps just because people like to play with language and invent new ways of saying things.

Compounding Words

One way of inventing a new word is to take two or more words and put them together. This process is called compounding. Notice that in compound words, the new word may mean something completely different, with no relation to either of the original words:

• greenhouse – a place to nurture plants (not “a house that is painted green”)
• blackboard – a chalkboard or slate (while most are black, some are grey or green)
• wetsuit – a scuba diver’s outfit (not “a suit that got wet”)

A variation of compounding is called blending. In this process, the two words are combined by dropping parts of both words before putting them together. A new word in the OED for 2009 was celebutante, created by blending the words “celebrity” and “debutante” to make a word that describes a famous person who is also part of the wealthy fashionable society class. Some other examples of blending are brunch (breakfast + lunch), telethon (telephone + marathon), smog (smoke + fog), and infomercial (information + commercial).

Redefinition

The virtual world – computers, software applications, the internet, chat rooms, etc. – is changing even more rapidly than the real world, and new terminology is introduced on a regular basis. Quite often, these words are new definitions of existing words that have been adapted to describe new phenomena. As early as 1998, the OED had added a new definition of “spam” – no longer just a canned meat product, spam is now also defined as “irrelevant or inappropriate messages sent on the Internet to a large number of newsgroups or users.”

In 2009, a new definition of the word zombie was added to the OED. Rather than referring only to a flesh-eating monster from a horror film, it now also means a computer that has been remotely taken over by a hacker, and used to flood another computer system (usually belonging to a bank or other high-profile organization) with so many requests (so much spam!) that the system shuts down.

When you come across a word that’s new to you, take a look at its structure and see if you can identify how it was formed. Do you see a prefix or a suffix added to a root word? Is it a combination of two other words? The Ultimate Vocabulary program provides information on many word origins – and you can always google it!

Studying new vocabulary isn’t just about memorizing lists of definitions, it’s about learning how to recognize and understand words depending on their context in a sentence. Many of the exams that contain English comprehension tests will ask you to read a paragraph or a sentence and define one of the words, requiring you to read the whole phrase and pick out the meaning of the specific word as it has been used in that phrase.

We’ve created this short quiz to help you prepare for the type of vocabulary exercises you may be asked to complete on tests such as the SAT and GRE. Pick the correct answer for each before scrolling down to the explanation section.

1. “Many indigenous species are in danger of becoming extinct, as their rainforest habitat shrinks.”

The word “indigenous” means: (a) abundant; (b) native to the region; (c) migratory.

2. “Ecologists have tried to establish sanctuaries for these animals and plants to live in,
       but face pressure from logging and mining companies who want to develop the land.”

The word “sanctuaries” means: (a) protected zones; (b) charities; (c) escape routes.

3. “Because of the loss of valuable plant life, unique animals and birds, and the impact
       on the environment, rainforest destruction has a detrimental impact on the planet as a whole.”

The word “detrimental” means: (a) positive; (b) unpredictable; (c) damaging.

If you didn’t know what the target vocabulary words meant, how did you choose your answers? If you looked at the entire sentence, you might have been able to deduce the correct meaning.

In question 1, you can eliminate option (a) because if a species is near extinction, there aren’t many of them left, and that’s the opposite of “abundant.” A migratory species moves from one area to another, and in this sentence we’re talking about a specific location (the rainforest) so option (c) is out. Option (b) is the answer. “Indigenous” does mean “native to the region,” but in addition, that definition makes the most sense in context. If a species of animal lives in one habitat, and that habitat is shrinking, it will be harder for that species to survive.

In question 2, you can eliminate options (b) and (c) because an animal can’t “live in” either a charity or an escape route. A sanctuary is a protected zone.

Finally, if you read the sentence in question 3, you would have noticed the negative words “loss” and “destruction.” That eliminates option (a) immediately – two wrongs don’t make a right. The sentence starts with the word “because” which implies a certain conclusion, so option (b) doesn’t fit. That leaves option (c). “Detrimental” means damaging or having a negative impact.

If you come across a word that you don’t know, try to determine its meaning by its context in the sentence before you look it up. By connecting context to definition, you’ll remember the word more easily, and feel more confident using it in the future.

It’s commonly held that talking about the weather is what you do in really dull conversations, when you can’t think of anything else to say but feel like you have to keep the conversation going. Whether you’re in an elevator with your new CEO, waiting for a mutual friend with someone you’ve never met before, or trying to make out-of-town clients comfortable until your manager is ready to meet with them, it’s always easy to comment on the weather outside – and everyone has an opinion on the weather.

In fact, talking about the weather is a good way to practice your English conversation. Here are three ways you can use the weather to improve your speaking skills:

• practice using idioms, metaphors, and similes
• increase your vocabulary with weather-specific terminology
• expand your use of descriptive words

Idioms, Metaphors, and Similes

In the last post, we talked about common English idioms, and explained that the words in such an expression aren’t to be taken literally. So when you hear the idiom “it’s raining cats and dogs” don’t rush outside looking for a shower of Schnauzers or puddles of Persians – this phrase just means that it’s raining very heavily.

A metaphor is a figure of speech in which one thing is described as if it is equivalent to another, but like an idiom, it’s not a literal expression. When you say “the snow is a white blanket covering the street” you don’t really mean that a huge blanket has been knitted together out of snowflakes and spread out over the pavement.

Similes describe things by comparing them to something else using the words like or as. You might say “the sun was shining like a spotlight on my face” or “the wind is blowing as noisily as an airplane engine.”

Terminology

If you’ve been following the news about global climate change, you might have heard that carbon sequestration is being proposed to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by trapping it and storing it under the ocean. The word sequester comes from the Latin sequestrare, meaning “to place in safekeeping.” Trees naturally sequester carbon dioxide, and emit oxygen. This oxygen emission (release, flow, discharge) is what allows people and all the other animals to breathe and live.

There are many terms specific to meteorology (the study of weather processes and weather forecasting), including names for specific types of clouds. A cumulus cloud is a low-hanging cloud with a flat base and a rounded, heaped-up surface. In Latin, cumulus means “heap.”

Descriptive Words

Don’t just say that it’s raining – say that it’s pouring down in sheets. If the sun is shining, say that it’s shining brightly. When the wind is blowing, describe it as blowing wildly, or gusting, or howling. Use a conversation about weather as an opportunity to get creative with language.

Keep practicing, and when you’re talking about weather, people will find it a fascinating topic!