In the previous post, we talked about the process of officially adding new words to the venerable Oxford English Dictionary, a process that can take years, even though many new words enter the common spoken language every day as a natural process of language change, or to keep up with changes in society, or perhaps just because people like to play with language and invent new ways of saying things.

Compounding Words

One way of inventing a new word is to take two or more words and put them together. This process is called compounding. Notice that in compound words, the new word may mean something completely different, with no relation to either of the original words:

• greenhouse – a place to nurture plants (not “a house that is painted green”)
• blackboard – a chalkboard or slate (while most are black, some are grey or green)
• wetsuit – a scuba diver’s outfit (not “a suit that got wet”)

A variation of compounding is called blending. In this process, the two words are combined by dropping parts of both words before putting them together. A new word in the OED for 2009 was celebutante, created by blending the words “celebrity” and “debutante” to make a word that describes a famous person who is also part of the wealthy fashionable society class. Some other examples of blending are brunch (breakfast + lunch), telethon (telephone + marathon), smog (smoke + fog), and infomercial (information + commercial).

Redefinition

The virtual world – computers, software applications, the internet, chat rooms, etc. – is changing even more rapidly than the real world, and new terminology is introduced on a regular basis. Quite often, these words are new definitions of existing words that have been adapted to describe new phenomena. As early as 1998, the OED had added a new definition of “spam” – no longer just a canned meat product, spam is now also defined as “irrelevant or inappropriate messages sent on the Internet to a large number of newsgroups or users.”

In 2009, a new definition of the word zombie was added to the OED. Rather than referring only to a flesh-eating monster from a horror film, it now also means a computer that has been remotely taken over by a hacker, and used to flood another computer system (usually belonging to a bank or other high-profile organization) with so many requests (so much spam!) that the system shuts down.

When you come across a word that’s new to you, take a look at its structure and see if you can identify how it was formed. Do you see a prefix or a suffix added to a root word? Is it a combination of two other words? The Ultimate Vocabulary program provides information on many word origins – and you can always google it!

Every year, new words are added to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the definitive reference for English vocabulary for over a century. These words might be slang terms that have become commonly used, additional definitions for existing words, or entirely new words that have been created to keep up with our ever-changing world. The process of getting a word accepted for inclusion takes time. For example, you’ve probably heard someone say “I’ll google that when I get home” – meaning “I’ll use the Google search engine to look that up on line.” Google (the product) became available in 1998; google (the verb) was added to the OED in 2006.

However, new words are created and used daily by people all over the English-speaking world, whether those words are officially part of the English language or not. English is a very flexible language, and there are many ways to create a new word. Here are four examples of ways new words are created:

• by adding a suffix
• by adding a prefix
• by compounding two or more words together
• by creating new definitions of, or uses for, existing words

Adding a Suffix

A suffix is one or more letters (as a group, these are called an affix) added to the end of a word (called the root) to make a new word that has a meaning that can be related back to the original root word.

The word aerobicized was added to the OED in 2009 as an adjective meaning “made fit or in shape due to aerobic exercise.” This word was created by adding the suffix -ize (meaning “to make”) to the word aerobic. Other examples of words created using this suffix include harmonize (to make harmonic), emphasize (to make emphatic), and modernize (to make modern).

Adding a Prefix

A prefix is an affix that is put on the beginning of a word to create a new word.

The OED added the word upskill in 2009 as a verb meaning “to teach someone new skills” – that is, to “up” their skill level. The prefix up- is used as a prefix in many words, including upscale, upstream, and uphold, all with the sense of directing something upwards. Another common prefix is re- (meaning “again”) as demonstrated in the words reprint, redo, and reload.

In the next post, we’ll look at two more methods of creating new English words: compounding and redefinition.

For a thousand years, the center of Western civilization was Rome. At one point, the Roman Empire stretched from the British Isles to northern Egypt, and all roads truly led to Rome, connecting peoples of many cultures and languages under Roman rule. The official language of Rome was Latin, and even after the fall of the Roman Empire, Latin remained the language used in official proceedings, particularly in the church, in law, in medicine, and in the sciences. Up until the late 19th century, it was common for schools and universities to require the study of Latin, and even today, anyone who wants a career as a doctor, a lawyer, or a scientist needs to have at least a familiarity with Latin, since much of the terminology of those fields remains in the original Latin.

Many words in English have Latin derivation – that is, they are derived from, or have their origins in, a Latin word. For example, the word derivation comes from the Latin word derivare, meaning “from the source”. There are also many Latin words and phrases that remain in the English language unchanged from the days of Julius Caesar. In fact, you may have used them yourself, without realizing the fact that you’re speaking Latin like Lucullus. Here are some common Latin phrases used in everyday English conversation:

terra firma (TEHR-ah FIR-ma): “solid land”
Definition: the ground, the earth
Example: After that turbulent airplane flight, I’m glad to be back on terra firma!

ad nauseam (ad NAW-zee-uhm): “to the point of nausea”
Definition: when something goes on or is repeated until you’re sick of it
Example: Over the holidays, the local radio station played “White Christmas” ad nauseam.

non sequitur (nawn SEH-kwih-ter): “it does not follow” 
Definition: a remark or comment in a conversation that has no relationship to what was said before
Example: “And that’s how I met my future husband. How did you meet your wife?” “I like pie.”

curriculum vitae (kur-IH-kyu-luhm VEE-tay): “course of life”
Definition: your qualifications, experience, awards received, and job history (a résumé, but in more detail)
Example: To help you get the best job, be sure to list your professional certifications on your curriculum vitae.

et cetera (et SET-er-ah): “and the rest” 
Definition: used to shorten a long list, usually abbreviated as “etc.”
Example: The charity shop sells clothes (socks, shirts, etc.) and old books for a good price.

per diem (per DEE-em): “by day” 
Definition: in business, the dollar amount an employee can spend each day as part of his or her travel expenses
Example: The sales budget allows for a $100 per diem in Seattle, and a $150 per diem in Hong Kong.

status quo (STAT-us KWOH): “the state in which”
Definition: what currently exists, or the situation as it presently stands
Example: If we can’t lower the world’s population, we should at least try to maintain the status quo and work towards zero population growth.

What other common Latin phrases do you know? The list goes on ad infinitum!

When does a word become “official” English? Some people say it’s when the word is included in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the multivolume resource that has been evolving for over a century, which currently contains over 200,000 words in current use. It can take some time for a word to become prevalent enough for it to be considered a standard word in English. For example, while the popular musical genre known as “emo” can be traced back to the punk rock bands of the 1980s, the word “emo” was not included in the OED until 2006.

The word “neologism” comes from the Greek roots neo- (meaning “new”) and logos (meaning “word”). A neologism, then, is a new word. Here are some of the new words that were added to the OED in 2009:

• bailout
• blogosphere
• reinstalling
• repaginate

Who hasn’t heard the news of all of the bank and industry bailouts over the past year? It’s certainly been the talk of the blogosphere. In fact, many people get almost all of their news via blogs these days. Several major blogs had to upgrade their systems to handle all the traffic, which frequently involved reinstalling their on-line routers and servers. Many of them changed their formats to be easier for their readers to use, which required them to repaginate their content.

We’re sure all of those words were already familiar to you, and that you hear and use many more neologisms every day. But it’s just as important to explore the richness of the English language and study those words that have proved their worth over the years – the powerful, precise, descriptive words that the Ultimate Vocabulary courses explain in detail.

Many words that end up in the OED start out as slang (like “bonkers,” meaning “crazy”) and it’s important to keep the distinction in mind. Use words that are appropriate to the occasion and the topic. Think about these two sentences:

“He was so lugubrious that it was hard to work with him.”
“I couldn’t relate to my coworker – he was such a drag!”

Both are ways of describing someone who is sorrowful, depressed, or sad, but in general you’d only use the second sentence when speaking with a friend or in a casual conversation. Knowing when to use words is just as important as knowing how to use them. When you’re working on your vocabulary, be sure to practice each word by imaging realistic situations and using natural-sounding sentences, and you’ll soon be an old hat at these new words.

Vocabulary flashcards are a very effective learning tool if used in the right manner. A repetitive technique involving a combination of known and unknown words known as interspersing has multiple techniques of application. Drill sandwich and incremental rehearsal are two popular techniques of interspersing.

The drill sandwich technique consists of a ratio of 30% unknown and 70% known words. “Unknown items are interspersed with known items and the entire set of words is rehearsed three times.” (MacQuarrie, L p.585) Multiple studies have shown that using a ratio of 100% of unknown words is less effective than when there is a ratio of known words.

Carrying on from using a ratio of known and unknown vocabulary flashcards, the incremental rehearsal technique has a ratio of 10% unknown to 90% known words. Though this method has been found to be much more effective than the drill sandwich technique, it is much more time consuming. The procedure for the incremental rehearsal technique involves introducing one unknown word at a time and adding it to the list of known words once it is learned. Since the known words are displayed more than once, the older words are retained while the new words are introduced.

Two different studies conducted independently about 6 years apart have shown very similar results. Nist’s and Laurice’s study found results very similar to MacQuarrie’s study. Both studies have found incremental rehearsal to be more effective yet less efficient than the drill sandwich approach. One can come to think that the drill sandwich approach is used more often than incremental rehearsal due solely to the amount of limited time available in schools.

Just because the drill sandwich technique is not as effective as incremental rehearsal does not mean it is ineffective. Again, due to the time crunch in schools, the drill sandwich appears to be more plausible in the real world since perfection is very difficult to reach in a time restricted learning environment.

In conclusion, the most effective vocabulary flashcard technique is not used because of the length of time it takes to perform. It appears as if the drill sandwich technique appears optimum in today’s vocabulary building for its balance of efficiency and effectiveness and therefore is used more often than the less efficient but more effective incremental rehearsal technique.

References

Nist, Land Laurace, J 2008, “Effectiveness and Efficiency of Flashcard Drill Instructional Methods on Urban First-Graders’ Word Recognition, Acquisition, Maintenance, and Generalization”, School Psychology Review, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 294-308, http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/

MacQuarrie, L; Tucker, J; Burns, M; Hartman B 2002, “Comparison of Retention Rates Using Traditional, Drill Sandwich, and Incremental Rehearsal Flash Card Methods”, School Psychology Review, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 584-595, http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/

In order to quickly develop vocabulary, active learning is necessary. Active learning is the notion that learning is enhanced and best accomplished by doing. This contrasts with vocabulary instruction of old, where individuals were passive receptors of information.

According to the Texas Education Agency (2002), it is imperative that vocabulary development occur through active learning. This form of learning requires that the student be motivated; that information is converted and analyzed; and that the learner is able to connect the actual strategy of learning to what is needed to be learnt (in this case vocabulary development) (University of Melbourne, 2005).

Apart from the strategies presented above, methods for improving vocabulary using active learning can include:

• Changing the information that is presented to you in a different layout. To increase vocabulary, this could include sentence revision or perhaps using your own words in a definition.
• Practice the task you are learning frequently (i.e. repetition).
• Work on projects with others. To improve vocabulary, communication with others is beneficial. Whether it is through conversation or in written form, two-way dialogue develops our knowledge of words and meanings.  
• Change the perspective. Use different strategies above to learn the same word. This will increase the depth of understanding. 
• Increase associations between the information and ways you can assist understanding. For example, in the case of increasing vocabulary, use diagrams, synonyms, and story innovation (University of Melbourne, 2005).

Fink (1999) explains that active learning occurs through the experience of doing and observing. It also involves a dialogue with self and others (see Figure 3). Active learning involves watching and/or listening as the task is actually performed. The doing element involves the learner physically completing the task themselves.

A Model Of Active Learning

Dialogue with self refers to the contemplation and analysis post-task, whilst dialogue with others involves discussing the task. Both forms of dialogue provide richer learning experiences. In applying this concept to vocabulary development, it is necessary to have active experiences in both the written and spoken form. The passive learning of vocabulary is less efficient and effective.

Another consideration is that despite the benefits of active learning in regards to vocabulary development, do not have unrealistic expectations. To fully understand a word, only learn a few words at a time (Bromley, 2007). It is more beneficial to gain a richer understanding of a word when improving vocabulary. This will increase comprehension, as opposed to word recognition but not understanding.

Active learning promotes the meeting of existing knowledge with new knowledge (Blachowicz et al., 2006). Research shows that vocabulary development occurs when learners make semantic associations between words and then verbalize or express these meanings (Blachowicz et al., 2006). Research also demonstrates that by providing the student with definitional instruction and forms of active processing (such as writing or reworking words), learning is more effective than definitional instruction alone (Blachowicz et al., 2006).

References: Please see our reference page for the complete list

E-learning involves instructing and learning via electronic means (such as the Internet, CD or DVD). As a strategy to develop vocabulary, E-learning has many advantages. Computer assisted learning provides a platform on which learning is both learner centered and active – both essential components for effective learning.

The programs developed to be used are of the highest quality instruction. They have been produced by experts and incorporate many of the learning strategies that have been discussed in this Post. For example, Ultimate Vocabulary’s Word Discover ^TM product offers over 50 usage examples, word history, visual word explorer, encyclopedia information, and images for every word. This aligns with different learning techniques previously mentioned, such as using context; using words in different ways; and repetition.

Another way that e-learning builds vocabulary more rapidly than conventional instruction is via specific tailoring. This refers to being able to pass over already known words using such technology. In a conventional classroom, learners often have to sit through instruction that they already possess knowledge on. One example of this is in Ultimate Vocabulary’s Learning Curve product that intelligently filters words that have already been learnt and no longer require work.

E-learning tools are also self-paced. In relation to vocabulary development, this is particularly important as learners are not only at different levels, but learn at different speeds. It also offers privacy in your own home, which is a bonus for some individuals who feel uncomfortable at their lack of vocabulary skills.

Interactivity, unlike that in conventional classrooms, is another bonus offered by e-learning. In vocabulary learning this is particularly important as it promotes active learning. It is active learning that reinforces knowledge and provides richer word understanding. It also offers fun learning, which increases motivation and interest. An example of this is Ultimate Vocabulary’s instant message service (Word Messenger ^TM) that periodically reminds the user of their current wordlist.

All of these benefits offer an environment that promotes learning and higher retention. An additional feature that has already been discussed in this post to improve vocabulary is the importance of hearing words. This is a further feature that e-learning possesses. If a person hears the correct pronunciation, they are more likely to be able to sound out the syllables to spell it, and are also able to use the above techniques to assist comprehension of unknown words (such as prefix, suffix and roots).

The final technique that can be used to increase vocabulary is that of active learning (as opposed to passive). It is essential for rapid and successful vocabulary development. We’ll be looking at that in the final post in this series.

References: Please see our reference page for the complete list

Actually being around the spoken word as it is used in context is an invaluable way of increasing vocabulary. Both using and hearing new vocabulary as it is used in everyday language helps develop vocabulary (Tsuguhiko and Manning, 2007). When we are exposed to limited vocabulary, and do not implement strategies to increase it, we constrain our depth and range of word knowledge.

It is agreed that the written language is more complex because of its need to be situated in context in order to produce accurate meanings. In contrast, hearing and speaking is conveyed alongside gestures and facial expressions that promote meaning (Yopp and Yopp, 2007). In instances, an individual may appear to have significant vocabulary knowledge by the way they speak; however, in reality their non-verbal vocabulary lacks depth and scope.

In our early years, vocabulary development obviously beings with what we hear and speak. This foundation also sets us up in later years to assist comprehension and vocabulary development in writing and reading. We have more resources at our disposal to assist understanding and analysis of word meanings. Bromley (2007) states that compared to other languages English is more straightforward. That is, 21 of the 26 letters in our alphabet are consonants and all have, for the most part, similar pronunciations. Only the five vowels diverge in pronunciation.

McAndrews (2008) suggests to build vocabulary, a person should:

• Surround and immerse themselves in rich vocabulary. Being around limited vocabulary will not provide the scope that is needed to develop;
• It is better if you hear words in context so you can learn the different meanings and how they are used;
• It is also beneficial if you hear and also have the opportunity to respond. This reinforces knowledge and provides a greater understanding. Being able to hear, comprehend, analyze, and then produce a word in the form of a reply will improve vocabulary.

Turner and Williams (2007) suggest that practice and repetition in both verbal and written forms of vocabulary assists in improvement. Even in its spoken form, vocabulary knowledge involves knowing the different meanings of a word; how to use the word properly; foundational forms and derivations; associations with other words; and, any associated rules (Tekman and Daloglu, 2006). Knowing a word can be broken down into two types:

• Receptive – where the student has the ability to identify a word when they hear it spoken or read; and
• Productive – where the student can produce the word when they write and speak it (Tekman and Daloglu, 2006).

Vocabulary knowledge can also refer to the number of words a person knows and the depth at which the word is known (Tekman and Daloglu, 2006). It is common to hear and read words that you recognize but do not possess a thorough understanding of. This is where contextual clues assist comprehension in both the written and spoken environment.

Another method to improve vocabulary quickly and effectively involves e-learning. This technique for learning incorporates all the abovementioned principles and creates a fun and interactive learning experience. I’ll talk about e-learning in the next post of this series.

References: Please see our reference page for the complete list

It is generally recognized that knowing a definition of a word does not indicate that it is understood. A word must be comprehended within its context (and how it is used) to fully grasp meanings. The ability to develop vocabulary also requires a deeper understanding than just recognizing differences. Words can take on varied meanings when used in diverse ways and associated with different words. It is important to gain an understanding of the context around the word.

According to the Texas Education Agency (2002), words should be understood using both definitions (e.g. synonyms and defining words in the learner’s own language) and the contextual backdrop (e.g. using words in different ways and crafting stories where the word is the main focus). Words are learned because new words can be connected to our existing knowledge (Bromley, 2007). That is, the more we know, the easier it is to understand and build our vocabulary. Our current knowledge acts as a foundation and framework for bouncing new information off and forming understanding.

Approximately 70% off the most commonly used words that we draw upon in our everyday lives possess more than one meaning (Bromley, 2007). The implications of this are potential opportunities for confusion and misunderstanding. We must rely upon our capabilities to understand and learn words within their context to overcome uncertainties connected with the meanings. Understanding a word when you speak or write is referred to as expressive vocabulary. This often requires additional word knowledge to that of receptive vocabulary (i.e. when you listen or read it) (Allen, 2006).

Context clues are hints that are situated around the word. If understood, they can provide the reader with word meanings (Kester-Phillips et al. 2008). Another common way to develop vocabulary by understanding context is the use of a graphic organizer. In this method, the leaner writes down the word, definition, and an example and non-example. The use of graphic organizers to develop vocabulary has been found to be extremely successful (Kester-Phillips et al., 2008).

Figure 1 - Sample Graph Organizer

In regards to using examples and non-examples as a model of contextual instruction/learning, Stahl and Fairbanks (1986) found that by using definitional instruction alone, students did not increase their comprehension significantly. The use of definitional and contextual teaching/learning did, however, promote understanding. It was also found that using semantic mapping (i.e. associating words with similar words) was another effective way of building vocabulary (Nelson and Stage, 2007)

Vitale and Romance (2008) propose that the best method for teaching vocabulary is not through teaching/learning of the words by themselves but teaching as “semantic word families” (such as using at, an, ap word families). Another method of improving vocabulary as suggested by Griffith and Ruan (2007) is to use story innovation. This strategy involves keeping the structure of a sentence and substituting new words. The outcome is a semantically new sentence that has a completely different meaning.

Vocabulary can be developed via indirect or direct instruction. That is, indirect refers to developing vocabulary predominantly through contact with the word in various settings, such as speaking with other people and/or reading (Nelson and Stage, 2007). Explicit instruction is particularly beneficial for those students who have lower vocabulary skills (Nelson and Stage, 2007). The learner’s awareness of multiple meanings and ability to recognize and use contextual clues is particularly important as not every definition can be taught or learned (Nelson and Stage, 2007).

In a review of the research literature, Apthorp (2006) found that to promote improvements in vocabulary, it was important to obtain definitions and explanations of the meaning of words; numerous exposures to new words; and, analyzing meanings in a variety of contexts. Extended text talk is another activity that develops vocabulary. This involves asking questions and using higher order thinking to solve problems (Apthorp 2006).

An additional method for improving vocabulary is that of semantic mapping and semantic features analysis (Blachowicz et al., 2006). Semantic mapping shows how words are related graphically (e.g. by using synonyms) and feature analysis demonstrates the difference that exists between words in the same category.

Another technique aligned with a graphic organizer and widely recognized to improve vocabulary is that of Concept of Definition Mapping “in which hierarchical, categorical, and semantic information related to a word’s definition are displayed along with examples and non-examples” (see Figure 2) (Blachowicz et al., 2006).

Figure 2 - Building Vocabulary Using a Concept of Definition Map

References: Please see our reference page for the complete list

If our reading comprehension is low, the ability to develop vocabulary whilst reading is also low. Knowledge of word meanings can contribute up to 70-80% of our understanding as we read (Bromley, 2007). As such, the cycle can continually feed into itself and the outcome can result in a constant improvement in vocabulary knowledge. To gain a full comprehension of a word, an individual must be exposed to that word many times and have it used within a diverse range of contexts (Yopp & Yopp, 2007). The literature also suggests that most new vocabulary is learnt via incidental learning, which can include broad reading (Yopp & Yopp, 2007).

Figure 1: Vocabulary as an Important Component of Reading.

Taken from California Department of Education (2007)

Yopp and Yopp (2007) propose that vocabulary knowledge is not just important to reading but to academic success as a whole. Vocabulary awareness also has significant variance. That is, individuals can possess rich vocabulary in certain content areas but lack word knowledge in others. Individuals may also exhibit a well developed oral vocabulary, but conceal a less developed non-verbal vocabulary range.

To improve vocabulary when reading, the multisyllabic word can offer assistance. This is because words that have more than one syllable (i.e. 60% of words) can be deconstructed and meanings can be inferred (Bromley, 2007). Some ways to help build vocabulary whilst reading include:

1. Identifying and comprehending prefixes, suffixes, and roots to make connections between the word part, the word, and the context.
   Construct a library of new words. The collection should consist of index cards with words and variations (such as plural or past tense, meanings, and sentence use) (University of Alabama, 2009).
2. Taking note of word families (i.e. phonograms) where a letter or grouping of letters characterizes a sound.
3. Look at syllable patterns or types.
4. Keep a vocabulary book to write down newly learned words. Write the dictionary definition, then write your own definition in your own words, and, finally, use the word in a sentence.
5. Examine similarities and differences in word meanings.
6. Learn new words regularly and undertake repetition. Repeated experience of a word has been found to lead to vocabulary development (Blachowicz et al., 2006).
7. Identify words that signal connections to other words (i.e. signal words); and,
8. Focus upon words that sound the same but are spelt differently and have different meanings (homophones) (California Department of Education, 2007).
9. Apart from reading, identifying and understanding how context works in word meanings can assist in developing vocabulary.

References: Please see our reference page for the complete list